Adjective

What is an Adjective?

Adjective

A word used with a noun to describe or point out, the person, animal, place or thing which the noun names, or to tell the number or quantity, is called an Adjective.

So, Adjective is defined as a word used with a noun to add something to its meaning.  [Adjective means added to.]

Look at the following sentences:-

 1. The lazy boy was punished.

2. The boy is lazy.

In sentence 1, the Adjective lazy is used along with the noun boy as an epithet or attribute. It is, therefore, said to be used Attributively. While in sentence 2, the Adjective lazy is used along with the verb is, and forms part of the Predicate. It is, therefore, said to be used Predicatively.

Some Adjectives can be used only Predicatively; as,

She is afraid of ghosts.  I am quite well.

Kinds of Adjectives

Adjectives may be divided into the following classes:-

Adjectives of Quality (or Descriptive Adjective) show the kind or quality of a person or thing; as,

Kolkata is a large city.

He is an honest man.

The foolish old crow tried to sing.

This is a Grammar of the English 

(Adjectives formed from Proper Nouns (e.g., French wines, Turkish tobacco, Indian tea, etc.) are sometimes called Proper Adjectives. They are generally classed with Adjectives of Quality) language.

Adjectives of Quality answer the question: Of what kind?

 Adjectives of Quantity show how much of a thing is meant as,

I ate some rice.

He showed much patience.

 He has little intelligence.

We have had enough exercise.

He has lost all his wealth.

 You have no sense.

 He did not eat any rice.

Take great care of your health.

He claimed his half share of the booty.

There has not been sufficient rain this year.

The whole sum was expended.

Adjectives of Quantity answer the question: How much?

Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives) show how many persons or things are meant, or in what order a person or thing stands; as,

The hand has five fingers.

 Few cats like cold water.

 There are no pictures in this book

. I have taught you many things.

All men must die.

 Here are some ripe mangoes.

Most boys like cricket.

 There are several mistakes in your exercise.

Sunday is the first day of the week

Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives) are of three kinds:-

(i) Definite Numeral Adjectives, which denote an exact number; as, One, two, three, etc. -- These are called Cardinals. First, second, third, etc. -- These are called Ordinals.

[A Cardinal denotes how many, and an Ordinal the order of things in a series. It will be seen that Ordinals really do the work of Demonstrative Adjectives.]

(ii) Indefinite Numeral Adjectives, which do not denote an exact number; as, All, no; many, few; some, any; certain, several, sundry.

(iii) Distributive Numeral Adjectives, which refer to each one of a number; as.,

Each boy must take his turn.

 India expects every man to do his duty.

Every word of it is false.

Either pen will do.

On either side is a narrow lane.

Neither accusation is true.

The same Adjective may be classed as of Quantity or Number, according to its use.

Adjectives of Quantity -- Adjectives of Number I ate some rice. –

Some boys are clever.

He has lost all his wealth.

All men must die.

You have no sense.

There are no pictures in this book.

He did not eat any rice.

Are there any mango-trees in this garden?

I have enough sugar.

There are not enough spoons.

Demonstrative Adjectives point out which person or thing is meant; as,

This boy is stronger than Hari.

 That boy is industrious.  

These mangoes are sour. 

Those rascals must be punished. 

Yonder fort once belonged to Shivaji. 

Don't be in such a hurry. 

I hate such things.

Demonstrative Adjectives answer the question: Which?  [It will be noticed that this and that are used with Singular nouns and these and those with Plural nouns.]

What, which and whose, when they are used with nouns to ask questions, are called Interrogative Adjectives; as,

What manner of man is he? 

Which way shall we go? 

Whose book is this? [It will be seen that what is used in a general sense, and which in a selective sense.]  

In the following sentences the words own and very are used as Emphasizing Adjectives:-

I saw it with my own eyes.

He was beaten at his own game.

Mind your own business.

He is his own master.

That is the very thing we want.

“When all else left my cause. My very adversary took my part”.

The word what is sometimes used as an Exclamatory Adjective; as.

What genius!   

What folly! 

What an idea!

What a blessing!    

What a piece of work is man!

As already pointed out this and that are the only Adjectives which are inflected or changed in form to show number.

This girl sings. 

These girls sing.

That boy plays.

Those boys play.

This, these indicate something near to the speaker. That, those indicate more distant objects.

Formation of Adjectives

(i) Many Adjectives are formed from Nouns. Noun -- Adjective Boy -- boyish Fool -- foolish Dirt -- dirty Storm -- stormy

Care -- careful   Pardon -- pardonable Play -- playful   Laugh -- laughable Hope -- hopeful   Outrage -- outrageous Venture -- venturesome Courage -- courageous Trouble -- troublesome Glory -- glorious Shame -- shameless   Envy -- envious Sense -- senseless   Man -- manly Silk -- silken   King -- kingly Gold -- golden   Gift -- gifted

(ii) Some Adjectives are formed from Verbs. 

Verb -- Adjective

Tire -- tireless   Cease -- ceaseless Talk -- talkative   Move -- moveable (iii) Some Adjectives are formed from other Adjectives.

Adjective -- Adjective

Tragic -- tragical   Black -- blackish Whole -- wholesome   White -- whitish Three -- threefold   Sick -- sickly

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

 Read these sentences:

1. Rama's mango is sweet.

2. Hari's mango is sweeter than Rama's.

3. Govind's mango is the sweetest of all.  

In sentence 1, the Adjective sweet merely tells us that Rama's mango has the quality of sweetness, without saying how much of this quality it has.

In sentence 2, the Adjective sweeter tells us that Hari's mango, compared with Rama's, has more of the quality of sweetness.

In sentence 3, the Adjective sweetest tells us that of all these mangoes Govind's mango has the greatest amount or highest degree of the quality of sweetness.

We thus see that Adjectives change in form (sweet, sweeter, sweetest) to show comparison. They are called the three Degrees of Comparison.

The Adjective sweet is said to be in the Positive Degree. The Adjective sweeter is said to be in the Comparative Degree. The Adjective sweetest is said to be in the Superlative Degree.

The Positive Degree of an Adjective is the Adjective in its simple form. It is used to denote the mere existence of some quality of what we speak about. It is used when no comparison is made.

The Comparative Degree of an Adjective denotes a higher degree of the quality than the Positive, and is used when two things (or sets of things) are compared; as, This boy is stronger than that.  Which of these two pens is the better?  Apples are dearer than oranges.

The Superlative Degree of an Adjective denotes the highest degree of the quality, and is used when more than two things (or sets of things) are compared; as, This boy is the strongest in the class.

Note 1:- There is another way in which we can compare things. Instead of saying 'Rama is stronger than Balu we can say 'Balu is less strong than Rama'. Instead of saying 'Hari is the laziest boy in the class', we can say 'Hari is the least industrious boy in the class7.

Note 2:- The Superlative with most is sometimes used where there is no idea of comparison, but merely a desire to indicate the possession of a quality in a very high degree; as,

This is most unfortunate. It was a most eloquent speech. Truly, a most ingenious device!

This usage has been called the Superlative of Eminence, or the Absolute Superlative.

Formation of Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

 Most Adjectives of one syllable, and some of more than one, form the Comparative by adding er and the Superlative by adding est to the positive.  

Positive -- Comparative -- Superlative

Sweet -- sweeter -- sweetest

Small -- smaller – smallest

Tall -- taller -- tallest

Bold -- bolder – boldest

Clever -- cleverer -- cleverest

Kind -- kinder – kindest

Young -- younger – youngest

 Great -- greater -- greatest

When the Positive ends in e, only r and st are added.

Brave -- braver -- bravest

Fine -- finer – finest

White -- whiter -- whitest

Large -- larger -- largest

Able -- abler -- ablest

Noble -- nobler -- noblest

Wise -- wiser -- wisest

When the Positive ends in j, preceded by a consonant, the y is changed into i before adding er and est.

Happy -- happier -- happiest

Easy -- easier -- easiest

Heavy -- heavier – heaviest

Merry -- merrier -- merriest

Wealthy -- wealthier -- wealthiest

When the Positive is a word of one syllable and ends in a single consonant, preceded by a short vowel, this consonant is doubled before adding er and est.

Red -- redder -- reddest

Big -- bigger -- biggest

Hot -- hotter -- hottest

Thin -- thinner – thinnest

 Sad -- sadder -- saddest

Fat -- fatter -- fattest

Adjectives of more than two syllables form the Comparative and Superlative by putting more and most before the Positive.

Positive -- Comparative -- Superlative

Beautiful -- more beautiful -- most beautiful

Difficult -- more difficult -- most difficult

 Industrious -- more industrious -- most industrious

Courageous -- more courageous -- most courageous

 Two-syllable Adjectives ending infill (e.g. useful), less (e.g. hope less), ing (e.g. boring) and ed (e.g. surprised) and many others (e.g. modern, recent, foolish, famous, certain) take more and most.

The following take either er and est or more and most. : polite  simple  feeble  gentle  narrow cruel  common  handsome  pleasant          stupid She is politer/more polite than her sister. He is the politest/most polite of them.

The-Comparative-in er is not used when we compare two qualities in the same person or thing. If we wish to say that the courage of Rama is greater than the courage of Balu, we say  

Rama is braver than Balu.

But if we wish to say that the courage of Rama is greater than his prudence, we must say, Rama is more brave than prudent. 

 When two objects are compared with each other, the latter term of comparison must exclude the former; as, Iron is more useful than any other metal.  If we say, Iron is more useful than any metal, that is the same thing as saying 'Iron is more useful than iron' since iron is itself a metal.

Irregular Comparison

The following Adjectives are compared irregularly, that is, their Comparative and Superlative are not formed from the Positive:-

Positive -- Comparative -- Superlative

Good, well -- better – best

Bad, evil, ill -- worse -- worst

Little -- less, lesser -- least

Much -- more -- most (quantity)

Many -- more -- most (number)

Late -- later, latter -- latest, last

 Old -- older, elder -- oldest, eldest

Far -- farther -- farthest (Nigh) -- (nigher) -- (nighest), next (Fore) -- (former) -- foremost, first (Fore) -- further -- furthest (In) -- inner -- inmost, innermost (Up) -- upper -- upmost, uppermost (Out) -- outer, (utter) -- utmost, uttermost

Note:- The forms nigh, nigher, nighest, fore and utter are outdated.  

The double forms of the Comparative and Superlative of the Adjectives (mentioned above) are used in different ways. Later, latter; latest, last. - Later and latest refer to time; latter and last refer to position.

He is later than I expected.

I have not heard the latest news.

The latter chapters are lacking in interest. 

The last chapter is carelessly written Ours is the last house in the street.

 

Elder, older; eldest, oldest.- Elder and eldest are used only of persons, not of animals or things; and are now confined to members of the same family. Elder is not used with than following. Older and oldest are used of both persons and things.

John is my elder brother.

Tom is my eldest son.

 He is older than his sister.

Rama is the oldest boy in the eleven.

This is the oldest temple in Kolkata.

Farther, further.- Both farther and further are used to express distance. Further, not farther, is used to mean “additional”. Kolkata is farther/further from the equator than Colombo.  After this he made no further remarks.  I must have a reply without further delay.

Nearest, next.- Nearest means the shortest distance away. Next refers to one of a sequence of things coming one after the other. Mumbai is the seaport nearest to Europe.  Where is the nearest phone box?  Karim's shop is next to the Post Office.  My uncle lives in the next house.

Certain English Comparatives have lost their comparative meaning and are used as Positive. They cannot be followed by than. These are:- Former, latter, elder, upper, inner, outer, utter.

Both the tiger and (he leopard are cats; the former animal is much larger than the latter.

The inner meaning of this letter is not clear.  The soldiers ran to defend the outer wall.  My elder brother is an engineer.  This man is an utter fool.

Certain Comparatives borrowed from Latin have no Positive or Superlative degree. They all end in or, not er. They are twelve in all. Five of them have lost their Comparative meaning, and are used as Positive Adjectives. These are:- Interior, exterior, ulterior, major, minor.

The exterior wall of the house is made of stone; the interior walls are of wood.

His age is a matter of minor importance.  I have no ulterior motive in offering you help. The other seven are used as Comparative Adjectives but are followed by to instead of than.  

The comparative degree is generally followed by than; but Comparative Adjectives ending in -or are followed by the preposition to; as, Inferior, superior, prior, anterior, posterior, senior, junior. 

Hari is inferior to Ram in intelligence. 

Rama's intelligence is superior to Hari's. 

His marriage was prior to his father's death. 

He is junior to all his colleagues. 

All his colleagues are senior to him.

Adjectives expressing qualities that do not admit of different degrees cannot, strictly speaking, be compared; as, Square, round, perfect, eternal, universal, unique. Strictly speaking, a thing cannot be more square, more round, more perfect. But we say, for instance, 

ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS

 Adjectives are often used as Nouns. (1) As Plural Nouns denoting a class of persons; as, The cautious (= cautious persons) are not always cowards. The rich (= rich people) know not how the poor (= poor people) live. The wicked (= wicked people) flee when no man pursueth, but the righteous (= righteous people) are bold as a lion. Blessed are the meek.

(2) As Singular Nouns denoting some abstract quality; as, The future (= futurity) is unknown to us. He is a lover of the beautiful (= beauty in general)  

(3) Some Adjectives actually become Nouns, and are hence used in both numbers:- (a) Those derived from Proper Nouns; as, Australians, Canadians, Italians.- (b) Some denoting persons; as, juniors, seniors, mortals, inferiors, superiors, nobles,   criminals, savages, elders, minors. (c) A few denoting things generally; as. secrets, totals, liquids, solids, valuables. [Some Adjectives arc used as Nouns only in (he plural; as, valuables, eatables]

(4) In certain phrases; as, In general; in future; in short; in secret; before long; at present; for good; at best; through thick and thin; for better or for worse; in black and white; right or wrong; from bad to worse; the long and short. 

In future I shall charge you for medical advice.

In short, we know nothing.

The negotiations were carried on in secret.

I shall see you before long.

Before long, he will be appointed to a higher post.

 At present, he is in pecuniary difficulties. 

I do not want any more at present. 0

 He has left India for good.

At best we shall get no more dividend than five paise in a rupee. 

At best he is a clever versifier: but a poet he is certainly not.  It must be said to his credit that he stood by his friend through thick and thin. I must have your teams down in black and white.

Right or wrong, my country.

I am afraid the young man is going from bad to worse.

The long and short of it is that I distrust you.

Nouns used as Adjectives 93. The use of Nouns as Adjectives is very common in English; as, I met a little cottage girl. He is always playing computer games.

POSITION OF ADJECTIVES

An Adjective used attributively is generally placed immediately before the noun; as, King Francis was a hearty king, and loved a royal sport. Where are you going, my pretty maid, with your rosy cheeks and golden hair? O Captain ! my Captain ! our fearful trip is done.

Observe the difference in meaning between:-  (i) a great nobleman's son, and  (ii) a nobleman's great son.

In poetry, however, the Adjective is frequently placed after the noun; as.

Children dear, was it yesterday. We heard the sweet bells over the bay. man with sisters dear!

When several Adjectives are attached to one noun they are sometimes placed after it for emphasis; as

There dwelt a miller hale and bold. The King, fearless and resolute, at once advanced. Franklin had a great genius, original, sagacious, and inventive.

When some word or phrase is joined to the Adjective to explain its meaning, the Adjective is placed after its noun; as,

He was a man fertile in resource. A Sikh, taller than any of his comrades, rushed forward.

In certain phrases the Adjective always comes after the noun; as

Heir apparent, time immemorial, lord paramount, viceroy elect, letters, patent, knights temporal, notary public, body politic, God Almighty.

THE CORRECT USE OF SOME ADJECTIVES

Some, any- To express quantity or degree some is used normally in affirmative sentences, any in negative or interrogative sentences.

I will buy some mangoes.  I will not buy any mangoes.  Have you bought any mangoes?

But any can be used after if in affirmative sentences. If you need any money I will help you. Some is used in questions which are really offers/requests or which expect the answer “yes”.

Will you have some ice-cream? (Offer)

Could you lend me some money? (Request) 

Did you buy some clothes? (= I expect you did.)

Each, every.- Each and every are similar in meaning, but every is a stronger word than each; it means, 'each without exception'. Each is used in speaking of two or more things; every is used only in speaking of more than two. Each directs attention to the individuals forming any group, every to the total group. Each is used only when the number in the group is limited and definite; every when the number is indefinite.

Every seat was taken. Five boys were seated on each bench. Every one of these chairs is broken. Leap year falls in every fourth year. He came to see us every three days [i.e., once in every period of three days]. It rained every day during my holidays. I was away ten days and it rained each day.

Little, a little, the little.- Note carefully the use of- (1) little,  (2) a little,  (3) the little.

Little = not much (i.e., hardly any). Thus, the Adjective little has a negative meaning. There is little hope of his recovery, i.e., he is not likely to recover. 

He showed little concern for his nephew.  He has little influence with his old followers.  He showed little mercy to the vanquished.  He has little appreciation of good poetry.

A little = some though not much. 'A little' has a positive meaning- There is a little hope of his recovery, i.e., he may possibly recover.  A little tact would have saved the situation.  A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.

 The little = not much, but all there is. The little information he had was not quite reliable. The little knowledge of carpentry that he possessed stood him in good stead. [The sentence means-The knowledge of carpentry he possessed was not much; but all that knowledge stood him in good stead.]

Few, a few, the few.

Note carefully the use of :- (1) few,          (2) a few,  (3) the few.

Few = not many, hardly any, 'Few' has a negative meaning.

 Few persons can keep a secret.

Few people are so hopeless as drunkards.

Few towns in India have public libraries.

Few works of reference are so valuable as the Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Few men are free from faults.

Few men reach the age of one hundred years.

Few Parsees write Gujarati correctly.

A few = some. 'A few' has a positive meaning, and is opposed to 'none'.

A few words spoken in earnest will convince him. 

A few Parsees write Gujarati correctly.

The few = not many, but all there are.

The few remarks that he made were very suggestive. [The sentence means- The remarks that he made were not many; but all those remarks were very suggestive.]

The few friends he has are all very poor.

The few clothes they had were all tattered and torn.

Articles

The words a or an and the are called Articles. They come before nouns.   

There are two Articles - a (or an) and the.

A or an is called the Indefinite Article, because it usually leaves indefinite the person or thing spoken of; as, A doctor; that is, any doctor.

The is called the Definite Article, because it normally points out some particular person or thing; as,

He saw the doctor; meaning some particular doctor.

The indefinite article is used before singular countable nouns, e.g. A book, art orange, a girl

The definite article is used before singular countable nouns, plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns, e.g., The book, the books, the milk

A or An

The choice between a and an is determined by sound. Before a word beginning with a vowel sound an is used; as, An ass, an enemy, an ink-pad, an orange, an umbrella, an hour, an honest man. An heir.

It will be noticed that the words hour, honest, heir begin with a vowel sound, as the initial consonant h is not pronounced,

Before a word beginning with a consonant sound a is used; as, A boy, a reindeer, a woman, a yard, a horse, a hole, also a university,, a union, a European, a ewe, a unicorn, a useful article.

because these words (university, union, etc.) begin with a consonant sound, that of yu. Similarly, we say,

A one-rupee note, such a one, a one-eyed man. 

because one begins with the consonant sound of w.

Some native speakers use an before words beginning with h if the first syllable is not stressed An hotel (More common: a hotel) an historical novel (More common: a historical novel)

Use of the Definite Article

The Definite Article the is used- (1) When we talk about a particular person or thing, or one already referred to (that is, when it is clear from the context which one already referred to (that is, when it is clear from the constant which one we mean); as,

The book you want is out of print. (Which book? The one you want.) Let's go to the park. (= the park in this town) The girl cried, (the girl = the girl already talked about)

(2) When a singular noun is meant to represent a whole class; as, The cow is a useful animal. [Or we may say, "Cows are useful animals."] The horse is a noble animal. The cat loves comfort. The rose is the sweetest of all flowers. The banyan is a kind of fig tree. [Do not say, "a kind of a fig tree". This is a common error.]

The two nouns man and woman can be used in a general sense without either article. Man is the only animal that uses fire.  Woman is man's mate.

But in present-day English a man and a woman (or men and women) are more usual. A woman is more sensitive than a man.

(3) Before some proper names, viz., these kinds of place-names: (a) oceans and seas, e.g. the Pacific, the black Sea (b) rivers, e.g. the Ganga, the Nile (c) canals, e.g. the Suez Canal (d) deserts, e.g. the Sahara (e) groups of islands, e.g. the West Indies (f) mountain-ranges, e.g. the Himalayas, the Alps (g) a very few names of countries, which include words like republic and kingdom (e.g. the Irish Republic, the United Kingdom) also: the Ukraine, the Netherlands (and its seat of government the Hague)

(4) Before the names of certain books; as, The Vedas, the Puranas, the Iliad, the Ramayana. 

But we say- Homer's Iliad, Valmiki's Ramayana.

(5) Before names of things unique of their kind; as, The sun, the sky, the ocean, the sea, the earth. [Note-Sometimes the is placed before aCommon noun to give it the meaning of an Abstract noun; as, At last the wamor(the warlike or martial spirit) in him was thoroughly aroused.]

(6) Before a Proper noun when it is qualified by an Adjective or a defining adjectival clause; as, The great Caesar : the immortal Shakespeare. The Mr. Roy whom you met last night is my uncle.

(7) With Superlatives; as, The darkest cloud has a silver lining. This is the best book of elementary chemistry. 

(8) With ordinals; as, He was the first man to arrive;l  

(9) Before musical instruments; as, He can play the flute.

(10) Before an Adjective when the noun is understood; as,  The poor are always with us.

(11) Before a noun (with emphasis) to give the force of a Super lative; as, The Verb is the word (= the chief word) in a sentence.

(12) As an Adverb with Comparatives; as, The more the merrier. (= by how much more, by so much the merrier) The more they get, the more they want.

Use of the Indefinite Article

The Indefinite Article is used- (1) In its original numerical sense of one; as, Twelve inches make a foot. Not a word was said. A word to the wise is sufficient. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

(2) In  the vague sense of a certain; as, A Kishore Kumar (= a certain person named Kishore Kumar) is suspected by the police. One evening a beggar came to my door.

(3) In the sense of any, to single out an individual as the representative of a class; as, A pupil should obey his teacher.  A cow is a useful animal. 

(4) To make a common noun of a proper noun; as, A Daniel comes to judgement! (A Daniel = a very wise man)

Omission of the Article 112. The Article is omitted- (1) Before names of substances and abstract nouns (i.e. uncountable nouns) used in a general sense; as, Sugar is bad for your teeth.  Gold is a precious metal. Wisdom is the gift of heaven.  Honesty is the best policy. Virtue is its own reward.

Note:- Uncountable nouns take the when used in a particular sense (especially when qualified by an Adjective or adjectival phrase or clause); as, Would you pass me the sugar? (= the sugar on the table) The wisdom of Solomon is great. I can't forget the kindness with which he treated me.

(2) Before plural countable nouns used in a general sense; as, Children like chocolates. Computers are used in many offices.

Note that such nouns take the when used with a particular meaning; as, Where arc the children? (= our children)

(3) Before most proper nouns (except those referred to earlier), namely, names of people (e.g. Gopal, Rahim), names of continents, countries, cities, etc. (e.g. Europe, Pakistan, Nagpur), names of individual mountains (e.g. Mount Everest), individual islands, lakes, hills, etc.

(4) Before names of meals (used in a general sense); as, What time do you have lunch? Dinner is ready.

Note: We use a when there is an Adjective before breakfast, lunch, dinner, etc. We use the when we specify. I had a late lunch today. The dinner we had at the Tourist Hotel was very nice

(5) Before languages; as, We are studying English. They speak Punjabi at home.

(6) Before school, college, university, church, bed, hospital, prison, when these places are visited or used for their primary purpose; as, I learnt French at school. We go to church on Sundays. He stays in bed till nine every morning. My uncle is still in hospital.

Note- The is used with these words when we refer to them as a definite place, building or object rather than to the normal activity that goes on there; as,

The school is very near my home. I met him at the church. The bed is broken. I went to the hospital to see my uncle.

(7) Before names of relations, like father, mother, aunt, uncle, and also cook and nurse, meaning 'our cook', 'our nurse', as,

Father has returned.  Aunt wants you to see her.  Cook has given notice.

(8) Before predicative nouns denoting a unique position, i.e., a position that is normally held at one time by one person only; as, He was elected chairman of the Board.  Mr. Banerji became Principal of the College in 1995. 

(9) In certain phrases consisting of a transitive verb followed by its object; as, to catch fire, to take breath, to give battle, to cast anchor, to send word, to bring word, to give ear, to lay siege, to set sail, to lose heart, to set foot, to leave home, to strike root, to take offence.

(10) In certain phrases consisting of a preposition followed by its object; as,

at home, in hand, in debt, by day, by night, at daybreak, at sunrise, at noon, at sunset, at night, at anchor, at sight, on demand, at interest, on earth, by land, by water, by river, by train, by steamer, by name, on horseback, on foot, on deck, in jest, at dinner, at ease, under ground, above ground.

Repetition of the Article

If I say- I have a black and white dog. I mean a dog that is partly black and partly white. 

But if I say- I have a black and a white dog,  I mean two dogs, one black and the other white.

Hence when two or more Adjectives qualify the same noun, the Article is used before the first Adjective only; but when they qualify different nouns, expressed or understood, the Article is normally used before each Adjective.

Compare:- 1. The Secretary and Treasurer is absent. 2. The Secretary and the Treasurer are absent. The first sentence clearly indicates that the posts of Secretary and Treasurer are held by one person.

The repetition of the article in the second sentence indicates that the two posts are held by two different persons.

Hence we see that when two or more connected nouns refer to the same person or thing, the article is ordinarily used before the first only; but when two or more connected nouns refer to different persons or things, the Article is used before each.

Also examine the following sentences :- Sir Surendranath was a great orator and statesman. There are on the committee among others a great economist and a great lawyer.

 We may either say- The third and the fourth chapter.  [Or] The third and fourth chapters.

In expressing a comparison, if two nouns refer to the same person or thing, the Article is used before the first noun only; as, He is a better mechanic than clerk. He is a better poet than novelist. He is a better thinker than debater. He would make a better engineer than lawyer.

But if they refer to different persons or things, the Article must be used with each noun; as, He is a better mechanic than a clerk (would make). He would make a better statesman than a philosopher (would make).